Holistic Health Articles and Research Related to Herbal Medicines, Foods and Phytochemicals

Saturday, 6 July 2019

Organic Growth Onion Processed Higher Antioxidant Contents than Conventional Growth Onion

By Kyle J. Norton

Antioxidants are molecules that inhibit oxidation. In other words, Antioxidants donate or intercept the lone electron in the outermost ring of free radicals before they can cause damage to the protein, lipid, and cell damage

Free radicals are reactive oxidative species or ROS that are chemically reactive atoms containing oxygen

In other words, ROS includes a number of reactive molecules and free radicals derived from molecular oxygen, including peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, and alpha-oxygen.

Free radicals are unstable molecules. Therefore, in order for them to maintain stable, free radicals must intercept or donate an electron to or from the stable atoms respectively, leading a domino's effect that can not be stopped until all outermost ring electrons are paired or inhibited by antioxidants.

Long-term overexpression of free radicals compared to antioxidants can result in oxidative stress, a leading cause of protein, lipid and cellular damage.

In a healthy individual, antioxidant enzymes produced by the body are good enough to neutralize the levels of free radicals in the body. However, people with a weakened immune system may need an additional dietary source of antioxidant.

Most common risk factors associated with oxidative stress are antioxidants deficiency in the body caused by demographic, physical, lifestyle or nutritional factors.

Some researchers suggested people who smoke may be at the increased risk of oxidative stress.

Hydroxyl radical (OH•) is the most common and very dangerous free radical form of the hydroxide ion (OH–). It is produced from the decomposition of hydroperoxides (ROOH) by the reaction of an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state molecular oxygen with water.

The hydroxyl radical is highly reactive and has a very short in vivo half-life of approx. 10−9 s Hydroxyl radical cannot be eliminated by an enzymatic reaction and can damage virtually all types of macromolecules: carbohydrates, nucleic acids (mutations), lipids (lipid peroxidation) and amino acids.

Believe it or not, free radical levels in a moderate amount are necessary to enhance the body functioning, including vascular relaxation.

By balancing the ratio of free radicals and antioxidant may be the best way to avoid the development of chronic illness associated with oxidative stress.

The onion is a plant in the genus Allium, belonging to the family Alliaceae, a close relation of garlic. It is often called the "king of vegetables" because of its pungent taste and found in a large number of recipes and preparations spanning almost the totality of the world's cultures.

Depending on the variety, an onion can be sharp, spicy, tangy, pungent, mild or sweet.

On finding a potential compound which processed significant antioxidants researchers differentiated the antioxidant compounds in the 'Hyskin' and 'Red Baron' onion.

By comparing the levels of antioxidants in conventional and organic growth onion, researchers found that
* Total flavonoids were higher in 'Red Baron' and when onions were grown under organic soil treatment.

* There are no differences among the total anthocyanins, individual flavonols, individual anthocyanins in both methods of cultivation.

Based on the findings, organically cultivated onion may have a stronger antioxidants activity compared to those of conventional growth due to the higher content of total flavonoids.

Further differentiation of the methods of cultivation, researchers wrote, "Differences were primarily due to different soil management practices used in organic agriculture rather than pesticide/ herbicide application".

Moreover, based on the results of the effect of conventional, organic, and mixed cultivation practices on the content of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity in the same in two varieties of onion grown over 4 years in a split-plot factorial systems comparison trial, researchers also found that

* Levels of total phenolics and total flavonoids process a significant year-on-year variation.

* Levels of antioxidants were also significantly different between organic and conventional production systems.

* Fully organic onion processed a high antioxidant content compared to those of fully conventional growth

Taken altogether, onion cultivated organically processed higher levels of antioxidants compared to conventional cultivation, pending to the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Sources
(1) Higher Antioxidant Activity, Total Flavonols, and Specific Quercetin Glucosides in Two Different Onion (Allium cepa L.) Varieties Grown under Organic Production: Results from a 6-Year Field Study by Ren F1,2, Reilly K1, Kerry JP2, Gaffney M1, Hossain M1, Rai DK. (PubMed)
(2) Evaluation of polyphenolic content and antioxidant activity in two onion varieties grown under organic and conventional production systems by Ren F1,2, Reilly K1, Gaffney M1, Kerry JP2, Hossain M1, Rai DK. (PubMed).
(3) Antioxidants - Most Common Types of Free Radicals by Kyle J. Norton

Friday, 5 July 2019

Cranberry Extract Kills Nasopharyngeal Cancer Cell in Vitro

By Kyle J. Norton

The nasopharynx is an upper part of the pharynx, connecting the nasal cavity above the soft palate with a primary function that allows us to breathe through the nose.

Nasopharyngeal cancer is a medical condition characterized by irregular cell growth in the tissues of the nasopharynx.

Most cases of nasopharyngeal cancer start in the cell on the surface of the inner lining of the nasopharyngeal tissue before penetrating into deeper layers to form a tumor through cell cycle division.

A recent joint study led by the Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University Dental College & Hospital suggested that cranberry extract may be potent to inhibit oral cancer.

Cranberry is an evergreen dwarf shrub, genus Vaccinium, belongings to the family Ericaceae, native to Northern America and Southern Asia. Because of its health benefits, cranberry has been cultivated in some parts of the world for commercial profit and used in traditional and herbal medicine to treat wounds, urinary disorders, diarrhea, diabetes, stomach ailments, and liver problems.

According to the TNM system, nasopharyngeal cancer can be classified into stages depending on the size and location of the tumor.
* TX is the stage that the primary tumor cannot be found.

* T0 is the stage that the primary tumor cannot be measured.

* T1 is the stage that the tumor has not spread beyond the nasopharynx.

* T2 is the stage that the tumor extends into the soft tissue of the middle throat.

* T3 is the stage that the tumor has extended into the bone structure or into the area behind the nose.

* T4 is the advanced stage nasopharyngeal cancer in which the tumor has spread to other parts of the body.

The study included 3 dose-related of parameters GI50, TGI, and LC50 of cranberry extract used in a number of oral cancer cell lines compared to Chlorhexidine (CHX).

In KB (Nasopharyngeal carcinoma), application of CE at a dose of 80µg/ml demonstrated a 70.6% growth inhibition.

However, at the same dose, CE showed no anti-cancer property against AW13516 cell line, a poorly to moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue.

Compared to CE, CHX demonstrated 80.15% & 95.7% of growth inhibition against AW13516 & KB cell line respectively.

Furthermore, compared to the drug Adriamycin, both CE and CHX was less potentcy reflected by their GI50, TGI, and LC50 values.

In other words, cranberry extracts exerted efficacy against nasopharyngeal cancer, similarly to those of chemo drugs.

Based on the results, researchers said, "CHX exhibited better anti-cancer properties than CE for both the oral cancer cell lines (AW13516 and KG) cell line ".

Taken altogether, cranberry extract may be considered a functional remedy for the prevention and treatment of nasopharyngeal cancer, pending to the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Sources
(1) Anticancer activity of chlorhexidine and cranberry extract: an in-vitro study.
Khairnar MR1, Wadgave U1, Jadhav H2, Naik R. (PubMed)

Turmeric Protects the Neurons Against Amyloid Plaques that Cause the Onset of Alzheimer’s disease

By Kyle J. Norton

Amyloid plaques are the formation of beta-amyloid, which has been found to interfere or disrupt the information transmitted between nerve cells.

Beta-amyloid, the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brain cells is a hallmark in patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Beta-amyloid formed part of the larger protein called “amyloid precursor protein” (APP) that extends from the inside of brain cells to the outside by passing through the fatty membrane around the cell.

According to the statistics, from Alzheimer’s Disease International, nearly 44 million people worldwide, are living with Alzheimer’s or related dementia.

Sadly, Alzheimer’s and dementia is most common in Western Europe and North America compared to other parts of the world.

A joint study led by the Woosuk University, Wanju suggested that-5 ethanol extract including turmeric may have a therapeutic effect in vitro and in vivo on Aβ-induced AD in mice.

Under normal conditions, APP bind to other proteins on the surface of cells to attach to one another, when they are cut by other proteins. In some circumstances, probably due to DNA alternation or genetic mutation, one of the pieces beta-amyloid is produced. The accumulation of beta-amyloid into microscopic amyloid plaques over time can cause gradual death of the affected brain cell, leading to to the onset of Alzheimer’s disease (AD).

Turmeric is a perennial plant in the genus Curcuma, belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, native to tropical South Asia.

The herb has been used in traditional medicine as anti-oxidant, hypoglycemic, colorant, antiseptic, wound healing agent, and to treat flatulence, bloating, and appetite loss, ulcers, eczema, inflammations, etc.

According to the study, WS-5 exerted a significant inhibitory effect on acetylcholinesterase (AChE). associated with reduced function of neurotransmitters.

Furthermore, WS-5 prevented Aβ oligomerization associated with neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease via inhibition of Aβ 1-42 aggregation.

Moreover, according to the 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, WS-5 possessed a high antioxidant activity, observed by the increase of the total antioxidant status (TAS).

Some researchers in the investigated the increased expression of amyloid plaques found in the aging population with AD wrote, "Age is the single greatest risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease with the incidence doubling every 5 years after age 65".

And, "a highly significant correlation between increasing age and slowed amyloid-beta turnover rates (2.5-fold longer half-life over five decades of age). In addition, we found independent effects on amyloid-beta42 kinetics specifically in participants with amyloid deposition. Amyloidosis was associated with a higher (>50%) irreversible loss of soluble amyloid-beta42 and a 10-fold higher amyloid-beta42 reversible exchange rate".

In other words, the genetic preposition that causes the onset of amyloid beta accumulation takes years to form amyloid plaques that destroy the brain neuron.

Additionally, WS-5 also protected the neuron against plaque formation by its anti-inflammatory properties observed by the inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced production of nitric oxide and two proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-6, similarly to those in elderly AD.

More importantly, memory impairment in mice with Aβ-induced AD was also inhibited by the injection WS-5, according to the Morris water maze and passive avoidance test.

In other words, W-5 protected the neurons against the pathological changes in the hippocampus and cortex region of the mouse brain induced AD by lipopolysaccharide.

More importantly, WS-5 (250 mg/kg) treatment improved learning and suppressed memory impairment as well as reduced Aβ plaque accumulation in Aβ-induced AD.

Collectively, researchers wrote, "WS-5 could be applied as a natural product therapy with a focus on neuroinflammation-related neurodegenerative disorders".

Taken altogether, turmeric processed abundantly bioactive compound curcumin may be considered supplements for the prevention of amyloid plaques induced neurodegenerative disorders, pending to the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Intake of turmeric in the form of supplement should be taken with extreme care to prevent overdose acute liver toxicity.

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How To Get Rid Of Eye Floaters
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Author Biography
Kyle J. Norton (Scholar, Master of Nutrition, All right reserved)
Health article writer and researcher; Over 10.000 articles and research papers have been written and published online, including worldwide health, ezine articles, article base, health blogs, self-growth, best before it's news, the karate GB daily, etc.,.
Named TOP 50 MEDICAL ESSAYS FOR ARTISTS & AUTHORS TO READ by Disilgold.com Named 50 of the best health Tweeters Canada - Huffington Post
Nominated for shorty award over last 4 years
Some articles have been used as references in medical research, such as international journal Pharma and Bioscience, ISSN 0975-6299.

Sources
(1) Synthetic Curcumin Analogs as Inhibitors of β -Amyloid Peptide Aggregation: Potential Therapeutic and Diagnostic Agents for Alzheimer's Disease by Bukhari SN1, Jantan I. (PubMed)
(2) WS-5 Extract of Curcuma longa, Chaenomeles sinensis, and Zingiber officinaleContains Anti-AChE Compounds and Improves β-Amyloid-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice by Kim JE1, Shrestha AC1, Kim HS1, Ham HN1, Kim JH1, Kim YJ1, Noh YJ1, Kim SJ1, Kim DK1, Jo HK2, Kim DS2, Moon KH3, Lee JH3, Jeong KO3, Leem JY. (PubMed)
(3) Age and Amyloid Effects on Human CNS Amyloid-Beta Kinetics by Bruce W. Patterson, PhD,1 Donald L. Elbert, PhD,2 Kwasi G. Mawuenyega, PhD,3 Tom Kasten, PhD,3 Vitaliy Ovod, MS,3 Shengmei Ma, MS,4 Chengjie Xiong, PhD,4,7 Robert Chott, BS,1Kevin Yarasheski, PhD,1 Wendy Sigurdson, RN, MSN,3,7 Lily Zhang, BS,8 Alison Goate, D. Phil,5,8 Tammie Benzinger, MD, PhD,6,7 John C. Morris, MD,3,7 David Holtzman, MD,3,7,8and Randall J. Bateman, MD. (PMC)

Phytochemical isobetanin Protects the Breast Cell integrity and Viability Against Breast Cancer

By Kyle J. Norton

The breast formed part of the women reproductive system is the tissue overlying the chest muscles with a primary function to produce milk for nutrition to the infant and baby.

The size of a women breast is totally depending on the amount of fat accumulation.

Breast cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the tissues of the breast either from the inner lining of milk ducts (Ductal carcinoma) or the lobules (Lobular carcinoma) that supply the ducts with milk.

However, at the advanced stage, invasive cancer cells can travel a distance away from the breast to infect other healthy tissue and organ via lymph and blood, leading to secondary metastasis.

According to the joint study led by the Unité Génie Enzymatique et Cellulaire, phytochemical isobetanin may process chemopreventive activity against breast cancer.

Isobetanin is Phytochemicals in the class of red and yellow indole-derived pigments of Betacyanins, belongings to the group of Betalains, found abundantly in beets, chard,...

In MCF-7-treated cells, betanin/isobetanin concentrate exerted anti-cancer activity by significantly decreased cancer cell proliferation and viability.

Betanin/isobetanin concentrates increased the levels of proteins associated with the promotion of apoptosis such as Bad, and p53 and alternated the cancer cells mitochondrial membrane potential that processed energy storage during oxidative phosphorylation.

Betanin/isobetanin treatment also induced autophagic cell death in MCF-7 cancer cell line.

According to the statistics, the lifetime risk of breast cancer of a woman is 12%. In the US, approximately 268,600 new cases of invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in women along with 62,930 new cases of non-invasive (in situ) breast cancer, compared to 2,670 new cases of invasive breast cancer in men in 2019.

Most common symptoms at the early stage of breast cancer are lump (mass) in the breast, in the armpit (lymph nodes), nipple discharge (clear or bloody), inverted or retracted nipple, scaly or pitted skin on nipple persistent tenderness of the breast and unusual breast pain or discomfort.

However, at the advanced stage, patients with breast cancer may also experience additional symptoms of bone pain (secondary tumors in the bone), shortness of breath (secondary tumors in the lung), unintentional weight loss and drop in appetite (secondary tumors in the liver) and headaches, neurological pain or weakness (secondary tumors in the nervous system).

The causes of breast cancer are unknown. Out of many risk factors associated with the risk of breast cancer, aging may be a major factor as most breast cancers are diagnosed after age 50.

Dr. Christopher C. Benz wrote, "early-onset breast cancers largely represent inherited or early life-transforming effects on the immature mammary epithelium, late-onset breast cancers likely follow extended exposures to promoting stimuli of susceptible epithelium that has failed to age normally"

And " late-onset breast cancers grow more slowly and are biologically less aggressive than early-onset breast cancers, even when controlled for hormone receptor (e.g. estrogen receptor, ER) and growth factor receptor (e.g. HER2) expression, supporting the conclusion that the biology of breast cancer is age-dependent".

More precisely, betanin/isobetanin inhibits breast cells toxicity induced breast cancer caused by accumulated of breast tissue damage due to oxidative stress over time.

Based on the finding, researchers said, "Our data bring new insight to consider the betanin/isobetanin mix as a therapeutic anticancer compound, alone or in combination with classical chemotherapeutic drugs, especially in functional p53 tumors".

Taken altogether, isobetanin combined with betanin/may be considered a remedy for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer, pending to the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Sources
(1) Phytochemicals in quinoa and amaranth grains and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential health beneficial effects: A review by Yao Tang and Rong Tsao (Reseach Gate)
(2) Betanin-Enriched Red Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) Extract Induces Apoptosis and Autophagic Cell Death in MCF-7 Cells by Nowacki L1,2, Vigneron P2, Rotellini L2, Cazzola H1, Merlier F1, Prost E1, Ralanairina R3, Gadonna JP3, Rossi C1, Vayssade M. (PubMed)
(3) Impact of aging on the biology of breast cancer by Christopher C. Benz. (PMC)

Phytochemicals Lycopene Inhibits Cancer Caused by NADPH Oxidase Induced Overexpression of Free Radicals

By Kyle J. Norton

NADPH oxidases, a multisubunit enzyme comprising membrane and cytosolic components plays a critical role to protect our body against pathogenic microorganism by maintaining the immune function, cell growth, and apoptosis.

NOX family of NADPH oxidases deficiency can cause immunosuppression, leading to the overexpression of intracellular ROS that results in various lethal diseases.

Epidemiologically, diseases associated with NOX family of NADPH oxidases deficiency induced immunosuppression are frequent and recurrent pneumonia, bronchitis, sinus infections, ear infections, meningitis or skin infections, inflammation, and infection of internal organs, blood disorders, such as low platelet counts or anemia, digestive problems, such as cramping, loss of appetite, nausea and diarrhea and delayed growth and development, particularly in cancer developing.

The NOX family of NADPH oxidases overexpression caused by a defect of its different subunits produced high levels of ROS in the gastrointestinal tract that causes chronic inflammatory stress; cytokine induction, leading to the formation of digestive cancer such as colorectal cancer.

A recent joint study led by the National Cancer Institute suggested that lycopene may be used for the treatment of cancer that targets the expression of NADPH oxidase 4-5 (NOX4-5).

Cancer is a class of diseases caused by cell growth irregularly and uncontrollably due to the alternation of cell DNA. Over time, cancer cells induced tumor formation to become progressively worse, leading to secondary metastasis.

In patients with chronic pancreatitis, overexpression of free radical has been found to orchestrating pancreatic cancer.

Furthermore, NOX4 overexpression increased the pre-malignant fibrotic states that lead to carcinomas of the lung and liver.

High expression of NOX5 is also found in patients with malignant melanomas, prostate cancer, and Barrett's esophagus-associated adenocarcinomas,

NOX4 and 5 are members of the NOX family of NADPH oxidases.

Furthermore, lycopene administration in vitro and vivo significantly inhibited NOX4 protein expression at 2.5 μM, compared to other concentrations.

The efficacy of lycopene ameliorated the expression of NOX4 protein was attributed to the significant inhibition of the NOX4 mRNA expression associated with the function of NOX in the production of reactive oxygen species.

Dr. Roy K, the lead scientist in the investigation of the risk of cancer in the NOX family of NADPH oxidases wrote, "Over-expression of functional NOX proteins in many tissues helps to explain tissue injury and DNA damage from ROS that accompany pre-malignant conditions, as well as elucidating the potential mechanisms of NOX-related damage that contribute to both the initiation and the progression of a wide range of solid and hematopoietic malignancies".

In SK-Hep-1 cells, intracellular ROS levels were also decreased by the injection of lycopene.

Moreover, the levels of NOX4 protein expression, and NOX activity and the intracellular ROS associated with transforming growth factor β (TGF-β)-induced cancer cell metastasis also were eradicated by the activity of lycopene upon injection.

Other mechanisms such as proteins involved in anti-apoptosis and enhanced cancer cells migration, invasion, and adhesion were also inhibited by the expression of lycopene.

Taken altogether, lycopene may be considered a natural remedy for the prevention of cancer cell metastasis associated with the overexpression of NADPH oxidase, pending to the confirmation of larger sample size and multicenter studies.

Intake of lycopene in the form of supplement should be taken with extreme care to prevent overdose acute liver toxicity.

Lycopene Inhibits Cholestasis in Pregnancy

By Kyle J. Norton

Cholestasis is a condition associated with an improper secretion of bile by the liver, leading to symptoms of yellowish skin and whites of the eyes, the skin itches, urine is dark urine, and stools with light-colored and smell foul.

Most common cholestasis are caused by the diseases or conditions associated with the liver, bile duct, and pancreas.

More precisely, liver diseases such as acute hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, primary biliary cholangitis with inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts, cirrhosis due to viral hepatitis B or C are most common causes of cholestasis.

Epidemiologically, long-term use of conventional medicines such as amoxicillin/clavulanate, chlorpromazine, azathioprine is also found to induce the aforementioned condition.

In pregnancy, cholestasis has been found to increase symptoms of itchiness and the risk for fetal distress, preterm birth, or stillbirth.

The exact causes of cholestasis in pregnancy are unknown. However, most common risk factors associated with cholestasis pregnancy are personal or family history of cholestasis of pregnancy and history of liver damage.

Conventionally, treatment is depending on the severity of the symptoms induced by the conditions, including, ursodeoxycholic acid, to relieve itching and increase bile flow and menthol creams, to help soothe the itching.

Lycopene is a phytochemical in the class of carotenoid, a natural pigment with no vitamin A activity found abundantly in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables, such as red carrots, watermelons, and papayas,

Tomatoes provide about 80% of the lycopene in the world diet. In plants, lycopene protects the host against excessive photodamage and perform various functions in photosynthesis.

On finding a potential compound for the prevention of disease associated with liver oxidative stress, researchers examined the effects of lycopene on the pathogenesis of cholestasis.

Wistar albino rats.selected to the study randomized into 3 groups, including the sham group subjected to a sham operation, the BDL group subjected to bile duct ligation (BDL), and the BDL+L group subjected to BDL and treated with 10 mg/kg body weight of lycopene.

Based on the tested analysis, after 7 days of treatment, administration of lycopene showed a significant amelioration of the liver abnormal function parameters in BDL rats.

The efficacy of lycopene on treating the acute cholestasis involved in the reduction or stoppage of bile flow by the liver was attributed to significantly reduce the levels malondialdehyde, the liver oxidative stress markers, and nitric oxide associated with the overexpression free radicals.

Furthermore, lycopene also enhanced the levels of antioxidants produced by the host observed by the normalization of the levels of glutathione levels and catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione S transferase activities in the BDL rats.

According to the comet assay, lycopene also protected the cellular integrity against alternation of DNA in the lymphocytes and hepatocytes of the BDL rats.

Based on the findings, researchers wrote, "These results suggest that lycopene might have protective effects on acute cholestasis".

Taken altogether, lycopene found in tomato may be considered supplements for the prevention and treatment of acute cholestasis, pending on the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Intake of lycopene in the form of supplement should be taken with extreme care to prevent overdose acute liver toxicity.

Phytochemical Alliin, the Potent Antioxidant

By Kyle J. Norton

Antioxidants are stable atoms produced by the host or from the dietary sources with a function that inhibit free radicals.

Free radicals are the unstable atoms with highly reactive nature and single electron on the outermost ring. Therefore, in order for them to become stable, free radicals are ready to intercept or donate an electron to other stable atoms, leading to a chain reaction that can not be stopped until all electrons on the outermost ring are paired or inhibited by antioxidants.

Oxidative stress is a condition associated with overexpression of free radicals compared to low levels of antioxidants in the body. Over time, oxidative can cause protein, lipid, and cellular damage, leading to cells injury and death that facilitate the onset of chronic diseases, including CVD and cancer.

Believe it or not, free radicals at a moderate level are necessary for the body function, including maintaining the heart in the regulation of relaxation and constriction. However, if levels of free radical presented with a large amount, they can cause heart disease.

Most common types of free radical include

* Hydroxyl radical (OH•)
The hydroxyl radical is the neutral form of the hydroxide ion (OH–) produced from the decomposition of hydroperoxides (ROOH) by the reaction of an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state molecular oxygen.

* Superoxide anion radical (O2–•)
A superoxide anion is a compound that possesses an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge with the chemical formula O2− with one unpaired electron, leading to the generating of superoxide anion free radical.

* Singlet oxygen
Singlet oxygen is the common name used for the diamagnetic form of molecular oxygen (O2), which is less stable than the normal triplet oxygen.

* Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is the simplest peroxide, a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water, that appears colorless in dilute solution. It is considered a highly reactive oxygen species because of its strong oxidizing capacity.

* Lipid peroxyl free radical
Lipid peroxidation is a process in which free radicals steal electrons from the lipids in cell membranes, most often affecting polyunsaturated fatty acids, that can lead to cell membrane damage.

* Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide is a chemical compound with chemical formula NO. Even though low levels of NO production are important in protecting the liver from ischemic damage and contributing to proper smooth muscle contraction and growth, but its free radical and toxic nature can cause DNA damage and inflammation.

* Alkoxyl radical
Alkoxyl radical which is an alkyl (carbon and hydrogen chain) group singular bonded to oxygen can result in cellular damage caused by oxyfluorfen, a herbicide.

*Peroxynitrite
Peroxynitrite is the anion with the formula ONOO−reacted quickly with carbon dioxide, leading to forming of carbonate and nitrogen dioxide radicals.

Alliin (S-allyl-L-cysteine-S-oxide) is a phytochemical compound sulfoxide,. a derivative of the amino acid cysteine, belonging to the class of sulfur compounds, found abundantly in fresh garlic and onion.

On finding a natural ingredient for the treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress, researchers investigation the alliin antioxidant effects.

By comparing four main chemical classes, alliin, allyl cysteine, allyl disulfide, and allicin, prepared by chemical synthesis or purification, researchers found that
* Alliin was the best free radical scavenged superoxide, compared to others phytochemicals.
* Allicin suppressed the formation of superoxide by inhibiting the xanthine/xanthine oxidase system associated with the generation of ROS.

* The antioxidant activity induced by alliin was probably associated with a thiol exchange mechanism, a chemical reaction in which a thiolate group −S− attacks a sulfur atom of a disulfide bond −S−S−.

* Hydroxyl radicals were also inhibited by alliin.

* However, alliin did prevent alliin, allicin microsomal lipid peroxidation.

Based on the findings, researchers wrote, "both alliin and allyl cysteine were hydroxyl scavengers, and allyl disulfide was a lipid peroxidation terminator"

In other words, alliin protects the body against the overexpression of free radicals in the induction of a chain reaction to cause lipid and cellular damage.

Dr, Chung LY again in the summary, said, " our findings indicated that allyl disulfide, alliin, allicin, and allyl cysteine exhibit different patterns of antioxidant activities as protective compounds against free radical damage".

Taken altogether, alliin may be considered supplements for the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress, pending on the confirmation of the larger sample size and multicenter human study.

Intake of alliin in the form of supplement should be taken with extreme care to prevent overdose acute liver toxicity.