Kyle J. Norton
The widespread of prostate cancer, once considered a disease of aging
male, now have become major concerns of governments and scientific
community in South East Asian with tendency to effect even younger age
population. Suggestions emerged of over consuming bad fats in any time
in history accompanied with unhealthy diet and life style may be the
possible causes of the disease, linking to the economic prosperity over 2
decades. Foods for diseases' management have been prescribed in folk
medicine over thousands of year as one of best medicine of nature in
preventing and treating diseases, including prostate cancer.
Prostate cancer is defined as a condition in which the cells of
prostate has become cancerous, causing abnormal cell growth with
possibility of spreading to the distant parts of the body. Most
prostate cancers are slow growing and enlarged prostate and prostate
cancer may be detected during physical (rectum) exams.
A. Types of vegetables may reduce risk of Prostate cancer
1. Cruciferous vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables are the group of vegetables belonging to the
family Brassicaceae, including cauliflower, cabbage, cress, bok choy,
broccoli etc..
Epidemiological studies has demonstrated reduced risk of prostate cancer in cruciferous consumption. Indole-3-carbinol, a major chemical compound in Crucifers, are found to be effective in inhibiting prostate cancer by blocking initiation through induction of phases I and II detoxification pathways and suppressing prostate cancer
progression, through down-regulated cell signaling pathways(1). Its
derivative 3,3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM), showed to activate the
AMPK(regulator of cellular energy homeostasis) signaling pathway,
associated with suppression of the mammalian target of rapamycin
(mTOR)(cell regulator), down-regulation of androgen receptor (AR)
expression, and induction of apoptosis in both androgen-sensitive prostate cancer
cells(2). Erucin (ER), derived from Isothiocyanates (ITCs) in
crucifers, may hold an anti progressive property in prostate cancer as
it showed an effect in increasing significantly p21 protein expression (
regulator of cell cycle progression at G1 and S phase) and
ERK1/2 phosphorylation(cell regulation) in a dose-dependent manner to
inhibit PC3(Human prostate cell line) cell proliferation(3).
Sulforaphane (SFN) in crucifers also inhibited prostate cancer cell
line through impacting epigenetic pathways(4).
2. Tomato
Tomato is a red, edible fruit, genus Solanum,
belonging to family Solanaceae, native to South America. Because of its
health benefits, tomato is grown world wide for commercial purpose and
often in green house.
Studies of tomato, linking to reduced risk of prostate caner have produced inconsistent results.(5)(6)(7)(8)(9). Regardless to these mixed results, intake of lycopene and specific tomato products acknowledged by many researchers is associated in reduced risk prostate cancer. Lycopene, a lipid soluble carotenoid molecule found in tomato and Alpha (α)-tomatine, a saponin presented in tomato, showed to exert its tumor
suppressing effects by increased apoptosis and lower proliferation of
tumor cells.(10)(11). According to the Northwestern University Medical
School, in a recent prospective dietary analysis identified lycopene as
the carotenoid with the clearest inverse relation to the development of prostate cancer(12)(13). In Androgen-independent DU145 prostate cancer
cells, Apo-lycopenals or other lycopene metabolites, significantly
reduced cell proliferation through alteration of the normal cell
cycle(14). In BALB/c nude mice, lycopene caused DU145 cells to
accumulate in the G(0)/G(1) (Cell cycle)phase and to undergo apoptosis
in a dose-dependent manner(15).
3. Garlic
Garlic is a natural
superfood healer for its natural antibiotic with antiviral,
antifungal, anticoagulant and antiseptic properties.
Garlics intake, are related to decreased risk of prostate cancer(17), in a reviewed study with evidence from 132,192 subjects(18). S-allylcysteine (SAC) derived from garlic,
suppressed the proliferation of PC-3 cells and led to cell cycle arrest
at the G0/G1 Cell cycle)phases, as well as inducing cell apoptosis
which was accompanied by the decreased expression of Bcl-2 and increased
expression of Bax and caspase 8(19). Diallyl disulfide (DADS) another
compound in garlic, at 25 and 40 microM concentrations induced cell
cycle arrest and apoptosis in PC-3 cells through increased expression
of caspases(extent of apoptosis)(20) (3, 9, and 10), proapoptotic protein Bax(Apoptosis regulator)(21).
4. Sweet potato
Sweet
potato is a large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots vegetable,
genus Ipomoea, belonging to the family Convolvulaceae. Its young leaves
can be made into a delicious dish in Chinese foods but some species of
batatas are actually poisonous.
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) leaves, a favor vegetable consumed
extensively in Africa and Asia, containing rich sources of dietary
polyphenols (anthocyanins and phenolic acids) exerted its significant
antiproliferative activity in some prostate cancer cell lines without damaging to normal prostate
epithelial cells. SPGE (Sweet potato extract) altered cell cycle
progression, reduced clonogenic survival, modulated cell cycle and
apoptosis regulatory molecules and induced apoptosis in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells both in vitro and in vivo(22). In nude mice testing, the extract inhibited growth and progression of prostate tumor xenografts by ~75%(23).
5. Ginger
Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) or ginger root is the genus Zingiber, belonging to the
family Zingiberaceae, native to Tamil. It has been used in traditional
and Chinese medicine to treat dyspepsia, gastroparesis, constipation,
edema, difficult urination, colic, etc.
Ginger extract (GE) and 6-gingerol. a chemical constituent found in
ginger root, synergistically inhibited proliferation of PC-3 cells(24).
Daily oral feeding of 100 mg/kg body weight of GE, inhibited growth and
progression of PC-3 xenografts by approximately 56 % in nude mice and
reduced proliferation index and widespread apoptosis compared with
controls(25). In the comparison of GE and an artificial quasi-mixture
(Mix) formulated by combining four most-active ginger constituents at concentrations equivalent, GE showed 2.4-fold higher tumor growth-inhibitory efficacy than Mix in human prostate tumor xenografts(26).
6. Spinach
Suggestion of intake of typical green and yellowvegetable and spinach were associated to reduced risk factors for prostate cancer(27) and risk of aggressive prostate cancer decreased with increasing spinach consumption(28). Spinach extract (NAO) exerted its anti profileration of the human
PCA cell line PC3 by NAO-induced G1 delay and prolonged cell cycle prolongation as a result of
downregulation of the protein expression of ppRb(tumour suppressor pathway)(29)and E2F transcription factors(30). In human prostatic cancer
(PCA) cell lines DU145 and PC3, showed an inhibition of cellular
proliferation occurred in a dose-dependent manner, increasing numbers of
G1 cells (Cell cycle)and reducing ROS(reactive oxygen species)
levels(31).
7. Chili pepper
Chili pepper is
the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, belonging to the
nightshade family, Solanaceae. The fruit has been used in human history
for spices and cultivated for commercial profits.
Capsaicin, a chemical constituent of chili pepper exerted its antiproliferative activity correlates with oxidative stress induction and apoptosis and potently suppresses the growth of human prostate
carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo(32), inducing the apoptosis of
both androgen receptor (AR)-positive (LNCaP) and -negative (PC-3,
DU-145) prostate cancer cell lines
associated with an increase of p53, p21, and Bax(33)(34). Capsaicin in
other study showed to induce apoptosis in PC-3 cells(Prostate cancer)
via ROS(reactive oxygen species) generation, JNK(tumorigenetic
regulator) activation, ceramide accumulation, and second, extracellular
signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) activation(35).
8. Carrot
Studies of Dietary intake of the carotenoids beta-carotene and lycopene
found in carrot for its reduced risk of prostate cancer has produced
inconsistent results. Some studies suggested that dietary intake of
beta-carotene and its main vegetable sources was largely unassociated
with prostate cancer risk, whereas intake
of lycopene and tomato-based foods was weakly associated with a reduced
risk(36). In antioxidant study, some researchers suggested that beta-carotene supplementation in men with low dietary beta-carotene intakes were associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer(37) and vegetable and carotene intake was associated with lower risk of prostate cancer among Japanese(38). Unfortunately, there is a report of intake of beta-carotene supplement may increase prostate cancer
incidence, 23% higher and mortality, 15%
higher in comparison with those not receiving(39).
9. Mushroom
Mushroom
is a standard name of white button mushroom, the fleshy, spore-bearing
fruiting body of a fungus produced above ground on soil or on its food
source, It is a genus A. Muscaria, belonging to the family Amanitaceae and has been cultivation in many cultures all over the world for foods and health benefits.
Mushroom Inonotus obliquus (I. obliquus) petroleum ether and ethyl acetate fractions was found effectively against human prostate cancer cell line PC3 by inhibition effects on NO production and
NF-κB luciferase activity in cells produced by the differentiation of white blood cells in RAW 264.7 cells and cytotoxicity(40). Also in human androgen-independent cancer PC-3 cells, water-soluble extract (POE) of the fresh oyster mushroom exerted most significant
cytotoxicity on PC-3 cells comparisin to 2 other mushroom species with
cytotoxicity and induced apoptosis mediated in dose-dependent
manner(41). Polysaccharide-K® (PSK), an extract of the mushroom, induced
significantly tumor suppression in a reduction of tumor proliferation
and apoptosis enhanced, by lowering the decrease in number of white
blood cells, accompanied by increased numbers of
tumor-infiltrating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.(42).
10. Bean sprouts
eaten raw or cooked, bean sprouts are common ingredient in Asian cuisine, made from sprouting beans.
Isoliquiritigenin isolated from bean sprout, used in treatment on the
migration, invasion and adhesion characteristics of DU145 human prostate cancer showed to inhibit basal and EGF-induced cell(proliferation) migration, invasion in doses dependent(43) and cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in DU145 human prostate cancer cells and MAT-LyLu (MLL) rat prostate cancer
cells, through inhibition of ErbB3 signaling and the PI3K/Akt
((anti-apoptosis and increased cell proliferation)pathway(44). Other
researchers also suggested that these inhibition are associated with an
evident disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential, and the
release of cytochrome c and Smac/Diablo(a mitochondrial protein), and
the activation of caspase-9(apoptosis)(45).
B. Types of fruit may reduce risk of prostate cancer
1. Mangosteen fruit
Mangosteen fruit, a tropical fruit growth in South East Asia is a tropical evergreen tree originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia.
In 22Rv1 and LNCaP, and prostate epithelial cells (PrECs), standardized mangosteen fruit
extract (MFE), showed its inhibited effect by suppressing tumor growth
in a xenograft tumor model without causing damage to non-tumorigenic prostate
epithelial cell and induced toxicity(46). Polyphenols, the main
chemical constituent of the fruit extract also targeted multiple
signaling pathways involved in cell cycle modulation and apoptosis in
prostate cancer(47). α-Mangostin, a xanthone derived
from Polyphenols of mangosteen fruit, targeted cell cycle-related proteins involved in prostate carcinogenesis(48).
2. Long Pepper or Indian long pepper
Used as a spice and seasoning, Long Pepper or Indian long pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae.
Piperlongumine (PL), a natural alkaloid presented in the fruit of the Long pepper,
exerted its effect on prostate cancer by downregulation of Akt
downstream signaling(apoptosis, cell proliferation) resulted in decrease
of mTORC1 (nutrient/energy)activity and autophagy (cell
degradation)stimulation(49). PL also found to induce rapid depletion of
the Androgen receptor (AR) in prostate cancer (PC) cells which is an early indication of prostate cancer(50). In human prostate cancer DU145, PC-3 and LNCaP cells, piperine, another an alkaloid from black and long peppers, exhibited anti-proliferative effect in human prostate cancer cells by inducing cell cycle arrest and autophagy(51).
3. Pomegranate
Pomegranates is a fruit-bearing small tree, genus Punica,
belonging to family Lythraceae, native to Iran but has been cultivated
in Asian since ancient time.
POMx, a omegranate (PE) formula currently approved for clinical trials,
effectively inhibited survivin (baculoviral inhibitor), induced
apoptosis, retarded the rate of tumor growth in skeleton(52).
Polyphenols, main chemical compounds from pomegranate
fruit extracts (PFEs), slightly decreased secretion of matrix
metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 but not MMP-9 (expression usually seen in
invasive and highly tumorigenic cancers) from both prostate cell
lines(53). Other polyphenol derivative, ellagic acid (EA) than to
urolithin (UA) converted from Ellagitannins (ETs) from pomegranate juice (PJ), sgnificantly decreased cell proliferation by exhibiting synergism in PC-3 cells(54).
4. Strawberry
Strawberries is a genius of Fragaria × ananassa belongs to the family
Roseaceae. They have been grown all over the world with suitable
climate for commercial profits and for health benefits.
Berry juice study, including strawberry, showed to inhibit prostate
cancer cell proliferation, not involve caspase-dependent apoptosis,
but in cell-cycle arrest, by down-regulation of the expression of cdk4,
cdk6, cyclin D1 and cyclin D3(Decrease the proliferative activity (55).
In fact major classes of berry phenolics, including anthocyanins,
flavonols, flavanols, ellagitannins, gallotannins, proanthocyanidins,
and phenolic acids are found to be effective in inhibition the growth
of many human cancer cell lines, including prostate
(LNCaP) tumor cell lines at concentrations ranging from 25 to 200 micro
g/mL.(56). Crude extracts (250 microg/mL) from strawberry and its
pure compounds (100 microg/mL)also found to inhibit prostate (LNCaP, DU145) cancer cells(57).
5. Grapes
Grape is a woody vines of the genus Vitis, belong to the family Vitaceae, native to southern Turkey.
Fisetin, a chemical compound found in grape inhibited prostate cancer
cell lines through downregulation of the PI3K/Akt (anti-apoptosis and
increased cell proliferation)and the mTOR(energy sources) pathways(58).
Another chemical constituent pterostilbene, in dose-dependent inhibited
cellular proliferation, through activation of expression of
AMPK(cellular energy homeostasis) and the p53(antigens) but in p53
positive LNCaP cells, pterostilbene blocked the progression of cell
cycle at G1 phase by inducing p53 expression and further up-regulating
p21 expression and in p53 negative, induced apoptosis in PC3 cells(59).
Piceatannol found in grape, exhibited potential anticancer
properties by suppressing proliferation of a wide variety of tumor
cells, through cell-cycle arrest, upregulation of antibody antigens and
apoptotic activity and down-regulation of cancer cell
proliferation(60).
6. Apple
Apple is the pomaceous fruit of
the apple tree, a species of the rose family Rosaceae. It is one of the
most widely cultivated tree fruits. The tree is originated in Central
Asia.
Apple peel extract (APE), exerted its
anti cancer effects by significant decreasing in growth and enhancing
clonogenic survival of human prostate carcinoma CWR22Rnu1 and DU145 cells, through a G0-G1(Cell cycle) phase arrest(61). In the study of Does an apple a day keep the oncologist away? showed an inverse association of apple intake and incidence of cancer(62).
7. Papaya
Papaya is a species of Carica Papaya, belongs to the family Caricaceae
and native to the tropics of the Americas, and was first cultivated in
Mexico and several centuries.
Benzylisothiocyanate (BITC), a solvent of papaya
fruit inhibited cancer cell line through induced apoptosis by
converging two major pathways: the death receptor mediated extrinsic and
the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway(63). In the role of diet, papaya is
found effectively (more than 22.7 g/d (50th percentile) in reduced prostate cancer
risk by 7.4 (Adjusted OR 7.4 (95% CI 1.17-46.8)(64). Lycopene, a major
chemical constituent in tomato, also in papaya, in prospective and
retrospective epidemiological studies indicated of an inverse
relationship between lycopene intake and prostate cancer risk in vitro and in vivo experiments(65).
8. Apricot
Apricot tree is about 8–12 m tall and a trunk up to 40 cm diameter
belonging to the family Rosaceae. Apricot is classified with the family
of the plum and has yellow to orange, often tinged red on the side
which is exposed to the sun.
Ethanolic extracts (30%) of apricot showed to inhibit the growth of
PC-3 and LNCaP (Prostate cancer cell lines) cells; induce apoptosis and
alter cell kinetics; down regulated ERalpha (estrogen receptor α), ) and
PKC-alpha(interaction with the cell membrane) protein, and demonstrate
good binding ability to both mouse uterine estrogen receptors and LNCaP
human androgen receptors(66).
9. Avocado
Avocados are a commercially
valuable fruit and are cultivated in tropical climates throughout the
world, it is a green-skinned, pear-shaped fruit that ripens after
harvesting and native to the Caribbean, Mexico, South America.
Whole-blood fatty acids testing indicated that higher intakes of dietary
MUFA(monounsaturated fatty) with principal source of dietary avocado intake was inversely related to prostate cancer(67).
Acetone extract of avocado,
containing carotenoids and tocopherols showed to inhibit the growth of
both androgen-dependent (LNCaP) and androgen-independent (PC-3) prostate cancer cell lines in vitro. Incubation of PC-3 cells with the avocado extract led to G(2)/M cell cycle arrest accompanied by an increase in p27(cell cycle inhibitor) protein expression(68).
10. Citrus fruits
Fruits of the genus Citrus, native to southern and southeast Asia, include grapefruit, lemon, orange, etc.
Study of incidence of prostate caner in North India compared to South India, showed a positive decreased risk of increasing dietary consumption of tea, citrus fruits and melon(69). Citrus consumption is associated with reduced all-cancer incidences, according to the study of cancer
incidence among 42,470 Japanese adults in the Ohsaki National Health
Insurance Cohort(70). Oral administration of Gold Lotion (GL), an
extract of multiple varieties of citrus
peels containing abundant flavonoid, showed the deduction of both the
weights (57%-100% inhibition) and volumes (78%-94% inhibition) of the
tumors without any adverse toxicity, accompanied by mechanistic
down-regulation of the protein levels of
inflammatory enzymes (inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS and
cyclooxygenase-2, COX-2), metastasis (matrix metallopeptidase-2, MMP-2
and MMP-9), angiogenesis (vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF), and
proliferative molecules, as well as by the induction of apoptosis in prostate tumors(71). Unfortunately, some studies did not show an association between intake of citrus fruits and the risk of prostate cancer(72).
11. Bitter melon
Bitter melon, a extremely bitter fruit, is a tropical and subtropical vine belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae, native in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. Treatment of bitter melon extract (BME) in prostate cancer, enhanced Bax expression(involved in p53-mediated apoptosis) and induced PARP(a nuclear protein implicated in DNA repair) cleavage(during apoptosis), delayed the progression to high-grade prostatic
intraepithelial neoplasia (precede the development of prostate
adenocarcinoma) and displayed approximately 51% reduction of
proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression in mice(73). MCP30, from
bitter melon seeds induced apoptosis in PIN and PCa cell lines
in vitro and suppressed PC-3 growth in vivo with no effect on normal prostate
cells(74). Bitter melon leaf extract (BMLE) inhibited the secretion of
MMP-2, MMP-9(metastasis) and urokinase plasminogen activator
(uPA)(invasion and metastasis) from rat prostate cancer cell line (PLS10)(75).
C. Others
1. Flaxseed
Flax seed is native to the region
of the eastern Mediterranean to India and also known as common flax or
linseed. Flax is an erect annual plant, it can grow to 1.2 m tall. The
leaves are 20–40 mm long and 3 mm broad.
Enterolactone and enterodiol, mammalian lignans derived from dietary flaxseed may obstruct or delay the progressed prostate cancer
cell proliferation via vascular endothelial growth
factor(VEGF)-associated pathways(76). Other study indicated that diet
supplemented with 5% flaxseed inhibits the growth and development of prostate cancer in the TRAMP model(77) and Flaxseed-supplemented
diet showed to lower prostate cancer proliferation rates and associated
with biological alterations that may be protective for prostate cancer(78).
2. Vegetable oil
Vegetables oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant.
Increased levels of MUFA-rich vegetable oil((including olive oil, canola or peanut oil)) intake were associated with a progressive reduction in prostate cancer risk(79). Hydrogenated soybean oil (SHSO) showed remarkably strong anticarcinogenic activity against prostate cancer in the rat model and 5% dietary supplementation with SHSO inhibited the growth of prostate cancer by 80% in vivo(80).
3. Honey
The rich golden liquid is the
miraculous product made by bees using nectar from flowers. It is
considered as one of healthy sweet food for replacing the use of white
sugar and artificial sweetener by many people.
Chrysin, a natural flavone commonly found in honey, and honey itself showed to exert its antiproliferative effect on PC-3 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner(81)
4. Chickpea
Garbanzo beans also known as chickpea is an edible legume of genus Cicer
and the family Fabaceae, high in protein and minerals. It is one of the
earliest cultivated vegetables, native to Middle East.
7 protease inhibitor concentrates (PICs) isolated from chickpea showed a significant inhibition the LNCaP prostate cancer cells in concentrations tested of 25-400 μg/ml(82).
5. Olive oil
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), was found
to significantly affect the growth of HCT 116 tumours xenografted in
athymic mice(83). Polyphenols, found in Extra virgin olive oil
(EVOO), exerted chemopreventive effects towards different organ
specific cancers,
affecting the overall process of carcinogenesis by
inhibition of DNA synthesis, modulation of ROS production, regulation of
cell cycle arrest, modulation of survival/proliferation pathways(84).
Other study suggested that Polyphenols can directly interact with
specific steps and/or proteins
regulating the apoptotic process in different ways depending on their
concentration, the cell system, the type or stage of the pathological
process(85).
6. Black pepper
Black pepper, is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, its fruits used as a spice and
seasoning
Piperine, a major alkaloid constituent of black pepper, inhibited the proliferation of LNCaP, PC-3, 22RV1 and DU-145 prostate cancer
cells in a dose dependent manner and induced apoptosis resulted in
caspase activation in LNCaP and PC-3 cells(86). β-caryophyllene oxide
(CPO), a sesquiterpene isolated from essential oils of medicinal plants
such as
guava (Psidium guajava), oregano (Origanum vulgare L.), cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp.) clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), and black pepper
(Piper nigrum L.) not only inhibited the constitutive activation of
PI3K/AKT/mTOR/S6K1 (anti-apoptosis and increased cell proliferation and
nutrient–hormonal signaling network) pathway
signaling cascade but also down-regulated the expression of various
downstream gene products
that mediate cell proliferation (cyclin D1), survival (bcl-2, bcl-xL,
survivin, IAP-1, and IAP-2), metastasis (COX-2), angiogenesis (VEGF),
and increased the expression of p53 and p21(87).
7. Green tea
Green
tea containing more amount of antioxidants than any drinks or food with
the same volume, is the leaves of Camellia sinensis, undergone
minimal oxidation during processing, originated from China. Green tea
has been a precious drink in traditional Chinese culture and used
exceptional in socialization for more than 4000 thousand years. Because
of their health benefits, they have been cultivated for commercial
purposes all over the world.
Green tea
catechins (GTCs), a potent chemical constituent
containing (-)-epigallocathechin, (-)-epicatechin,
(-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate, in treatment
of preprostate cancer men reduced lower urinary tract symptoms, improved
coexistent benign prostate hyperplasia and reached a statistical significance in the case of International Prostate Symptom Scores(88).
In green tea
polyphenols study, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) exerted its anti
cancer effect on signaling pathways in PCa(89). Also combination
admiration of quercetin and green tea,
showed a significant increase in the inhibition of proliferation,
androgen receptor and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling(tumor
genesis in early stage), and stimulation of apoptosis(90). In short,
Green tea, a potent anti prostate cancer with activities of heritable
alterations of gene expression and chromatin organization without
changes in DNA sequence induced multistep process of carcinogenesis(91)
may be considered as a natural treatment in vary types of cancer.
8. Fermented soybean products
Fermented soybean products are made from fermenting soybeans and filamentous fungus, along with water and salt after a period of sometime.
In the Japan, incidence
of prostate caner in aging men are low compared with the Western
world, suggestion of these result may be tradition Japanese diet
related. Consumption of fish, all soybean products, tofu (bean curds), and natto (fermented soybeans)
was associated with decreased risk of ORs (Estimates of age-adjusted
odds ratios) which supported traditional Japanese diet rich in soybean products and fish against prostate cancer(92). In China, suggestion of reduced risk of prostate cancer
associated with consumption of soy foods and isoflavones found
abundantly in fermented soybean products(93). Unfortunately, the
epidemiological data, linking ferment soybean products to reduced risk
of prostate cancer are inconsistent including miso.
The prevalence and widespread of prostate cancer may be diet,
demographic and life style related disease(94)(95)(96). Suggestions and
intentions are for prevention of prostate cancer to develop in the first
place or used conjunction with conventional medicine in treating the
disease. Eating healthy, with plenty of vegetables and fruits has always
been considered as a preventive engagement in human history. "Let foods
be your medicine and let medicine be your foods" by Greek physician
Hippocrates (460-377 BC).
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References
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K, Krishnamoorthy G, Banudevi S, Vignesh RC, Arunakaran J.(PubMed)
(22) Polyphenol-rich sweet potato greens extract inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells in vitro and in vivo by Karna P, Gundala SR, Gupta MV, Shamsi SA, Pace RD, Yates C, Narayan S, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(23) Polar biophenolics in sweet potato greens extract synergize to inhibit prostate cancer cell proliferation and in vivo tumor growth by Gundala SR, Yang C, Lakshminarayana N, Asif G, Gupta MV, Shamsi S, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(24) Ginger phytochemicals exhibit synergy to inhibit prostate cancer cell proliferation by Brahmbhatt M, Gundala SR, Asif G, Shamsi SA, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(25) Benefits of whole ginger extract in prostate cancer by Karna P, Chagani S, Gundala SR, Rida PC, Asif G, Sharma V, Gupta MV, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(26) Enterohepatic re-circulation of bioactive ginger phytochemicals is associated with enhanced tumor growth-inhibitory activity of ginger extract by Gundala SR, Mukkavilli R, Yang C, Yadav P, Tandon V, Vangala S, Prakash S, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(27) A case-control study of prostatic cancer with reference to dietary habits by Oishi K, Okada K, Yoshida O, Yamabe H, Ohno Y, Hayes RB, Schroeder FH.(PubMed)
(28) Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer by Kirsh VA, Peters U, Mayne ST, Subar AF, Chatterjee N, Johnson CC, Hayes RB; Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial.(PubMed)
(29) Enterohepatic re-circulation of bioactive ginger phytochemicals is associated with enhanced tumor growth-inhibitory activity of ginger extract by Gundala SR, Mukkavilli R, Yang C, Yadav P, Tandon V, Vangala S, Prakash S, Aneja R.(PubMed)
(30) Unique natural antioxidants (NAOs) and derived purified components
inhibit cell cycle progression by downregulation of ppRb and E2F in
human PC3 prostate cancer cells by Bakshi S, Bergman M, Dovrat S, Grossman S.(PubMed)
(31) Slowing tumorigenic progression in TRAMP mice and prostatic carcinoma cell lines using natural anti-oxidant from spinach,
NAO--a comparative study of three anti-oxidants by Nyska A, Suttie A,
Bakshi S, Lomnitski L, Grossman S, Bergman M, Ben-Shaul V, Crocket P,
Haseman JK, Moser G, Goldsworthy TL, Maronpot RR.(PubMed)
(32) Effect of capsaicin on prostate cancer cells by Díaz-Laviada I.(PubMed)
(33) Capsaicin, a component of red peppers, inhibits the growth of androgen-independent, p53 mutant prostate cancer cells by Mori A, Lehmann S, O'Kelly J, Kumagai T, Desmond JC, Pervan M, McBride WH, Kizaki M, Koeffler HP.(PubMed)
(34) Capsaicin, a component of red peppers, induces expression of androgen receptor via PI3K and MAPK pathways in prostate LNCaP cells by Malagarie-Cazenave S, Olea-Herrero N, Vara D, Díaz-Laviada I.(PubMed)
(35) Apoptosis induced by capsaicin in prostate
PC-3 cells involves ceramide accumulation, neutral sphingomyelinase,
and JNK activation by Sánchez AM, Malagarie-Cazenave S, Olea N, Vara D,
Chiloeches A, Díaz-Laviada I.(PubMed)
(36) Prostate cancer and dietary carotenoids by Norrish AE, Jackson RT, Sharpe SJ, Skeaff CM.(PubMed)
(37) Supplemental and dietary vitamin E, beta-carotene, and vitamin C intakes and prostate cancer
risk by Kirsh VA, Hayes RB, Mayne ST, Chatterjee N, Subar AF, Dixon LB,
Albanes D, Andriole GL, Urban DA, Peters U; PLCO Trial.(PubMed)
(38) Relationship between vegetable and carotene intake and risk of prostate cancer: the JACC study by Umesawa M, Iso H, Mikami K, Kubo T, Suzuki K, Watanabe Y, Mori M, Miki T, Tamakoshi A; JACC Study Group(PubMed)
(39) Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene:
incidence and mortality in a controlled trial by Heinonen OP, Albanes
D, Virtamo J, Taylor PR, Huttunen JK, Hartman AM, Haapakoski J, Malila
N, Rautalahti M, Ripatti S, Mäenpää H, Teerenhovi L, Koss L, Virolainen
M, Edwards BK.(PubMed)
(40)Anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of extracts and compounds from the mushroom Inonotus obliquus by Ma L, Chen H, Dong P, Lu X.(PubMed)
(41)Cytotoxic effect of oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus on human androgen-independent prostate cancer PC-3 cells by Gu YH, Sivam G.(PubMed)
(42) Polysaccharide-K augments docetaxel-induced tumor suppression and
antitumor immune response in an immunocompetent murine model
of human prostate cancer by Wenner CA, Martzen MR, Lu H, Verneris MR, Wang H, Slaton JW.(PubMed)
(43) Isoliquiritigenin inhibits migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells: possible mediation by decreased JNK/AP-1 signaling by Kwon GT, Cho HJ, Chung WY, Park KK, Moon A, Park JH.(PubMed)
(44) Isoliquiritigenin (ISL) inhibits ErbB3 signaling in prostate cancer cells by Jung JI, Chung E, Seon MR, Shin HK, Kim EJ, Lim SS, Chung WY, Park KK, Park JH.(PubMed)
(45) Isoliquiritigenin induces apoptosis by depolarizing mitochondrial membranes in prostate cancer cells by Jung JI, Lim SS, Choi HJ, Cho HJ, Shin HK, Kim EJ, Chung WY, Park KK, Park JH.(PubMed)
(46) Selective modulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress markers in prostate cancer cells by a standardized mangosteen fruit extract by Li G1, Petiwala SM1, Pierce DR1, Nonn L2, Johnson J(PubMed)
(47) Polyphenols from the mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) fruit for breast and prostate cancer by Li G, Thomas S, Johnson JJ.(PubMed)
(48) α-Mangostin, a xanthone from mangosteen fruit, promotes cell cycle arrest in prostate cancer
and decreases xenograft tumor growth by Johnson JJ, Petiwala SM, Syed
DN, Rasmussen JT, Adhami VM, Siddiqui IA, Kohl AM, Mukhtar H.(PubMed)
(49) Piperlongumine promotes autophagy via inhibition of Akt/mTOR signalling and mediates cancer cell death by Makhov P, Golovine K, Teper E, Kutikov A, Mehrazin R, Corcoran A, Tulin A, Uzzo RG, Kolenko VM.(PubMed)
(50) Piperlongumine induces rapid depletion of the androgen receptor in human prostate cancer cells by Golovine KV, Makhov PB, Teper E, Kutikov A, Canter D, Uzzo RG, Kolenko VM.(PubMed)
(51) Piperine inhibits the proliferation of human prostate cancer cells via induction of cell cycle arrest and autophagy by Ouyang DY, Zeng LH, Pan H, Xu LH, Wang Y, Liu KP, He XH.(PubMed)
(52) Pomegranate extract inhibits the bone metastatic growth of human prostate cancer
cells and enhances the in vivo efficacy of docetaxel chemotherapy by
Wang Y, Zhang S, Iqbal S, Chen Z, Wang X, Wang YA, Liu D, Bai K,
Ritenour C, Kucuk O, Wu D.(PubMed)
(53) Ellagic acid inhibits migration and invasion by prostate cancer cell lines by Pitchakarn P, Chewonarin T, Ogawa K, Suzuki S, Asamoto M, Takahashi S, Shirai T, Limtrakul P.(PubMed)
(54) Pomegranate Juice Metabolites, Ellagic Acid and Urolithin A, Synergistically Inhibit Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Cell Growth via Distinct Effects on Cell Cycle Control and Apoptosis by Vicinanza R, Zhang Y, Henning SM, Heber D.(PubMed)
(55) Inhibition of cancer cell
proliferation and suppression of TNF-induced activation of NFkappaB by
edible berry juice by in D, Blanchette M, Barrette S, Moghrabi A,
Béliveau R.(PubMed)
(56)Blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry, red raspberry, and strawberry extracts inhibit growth and stimulate apoptosis of human cancer cells in vitro by Seeram NP, Adams LS, Zhang Y, Lee R, Sand D, Scheuller HS, Heber D.(PubMed)
(57)Isolation and identification of strawberry phenolics with antioxidant and human cancer cell antiproliferative properties by Zhang Y, Seeram NP, Lee R, Feng L, Heber D.(PubMed)
(58) Dietary flavonoid fisetin: a novel dual inhibitor of PI3K/Akt and mTOR for prostate cancer management by Adhami VM, Syed DN, Khan N, Mukhtar H.(PubMed)
(59) Activation of AMPK by pterostilbene suppresses lipogenesis and cell-cycle progression in p53 positive and negative human prostate cancer cells by Lin VC, Tsai YC, Lin JN, Fan LL, Pan MH, Ho CT, Wu JY, Way TD.(PubMed)
(60) Biological activity of piceatannol: leaving the shadow of resveratrol by Piotrowska H, Kucinska M, Murias M.(PubMed)
(61) Antiproliferative effects of apple peel extract against cancer cells by Reagan-Shaw S, Eggert D, Mukhtar H, Ahmad N.(PubMed)
(62) Does an apple a day keep the
oncologist away by Gallus S, Talamini R, Giacosa A, Montella M,
Ramazzotti V, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C.(PubMed)
(63) Dietary isothiocyanate mediated apoptosis of human cancer cells is associated with Bcl-xL phosphorylation by Basu A, Haldar S.(PubMed)
(64) Roles of diet, lifetime physical activity and oxidative DNA damage in the occurrence of prostate cancer
among men in Klang Valley, Malaysia by Shahar S, Shafurah S, Hasan
Shaari NS, Rajikan R, Rajab NF, Golkhalkhali B, Zainuddin ZM.(PubMed)
(65) Multitargeted therapy of cancer by lycopene by van Breemen RB, Pajkovic N.(PubMed)
(66) Phytosterol Pygeum africanum regulates prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo by Shenouda NS, Sakla MS, Newton LG, Besch-Williford C, Greenberg NM, MacDonald RS, Lubahn DB.(PubMed)
(67)Associations of whole-blood fatty acids and dietary intakes with prostate cancer
in Jamaica by Jackson MD, Walker SP, Simpson-Smith CM, Lindsay CM,
Smith G, McFarlane-Anderson N, Bennett FI, Coard KC, Aiken WD, Tulloch
T, Paul TJ, Wan RL.(PubMed)
(68)Inhibition of prostate cancer cell growth by an avocado extract: role of lipid-soluble bioactive substances by Lu QY, Arteaga JR, Zhang Q, Huerta S, Go VL, Heber D(PubMed)
(69) A case control study on prostate cancer in Delhi by Tyagi B, Manoharan N, Raina V.(PubMed)
(70) Citrus consumption and cancer incidence: the Ohsaki cohort study by Li WQ, Kuriyama S, Li Q, Nagai M, Hozawa A, Nishino Y, Tsuji I.(PubMed)
(71) Potent anti-cancer effects of citrus peel flavonoids in human prostate xenograft tumors by Lai CS, Li S, Miyauchi Y, Suzawa M, Ho CT, Pan MH.(PubMed)
(72) Citrus fruits intake and prostate cancer risk: a quantitative systematic review by Bae JM, Lee EJ, Guyatt G.(PubMed)
(73) Bitter melon extract impairs prostate cancer cell-cycle progression and delays prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in TRAMP model by Ru P, Steele R, Nerurkar PV, Phillips N, Ray RB.(PubMed)
(74) Ribosome-inactivating proteins isolated from dietary bitter melon
induce apoptosis and inhibit histone deacetylase-1 selectively in
premalignant and malignant prostate cancer cells by Xiong SD, Yu K, Liu XH, Yin LH, Kirschenbaum A, Yao S, Narla G, DiFeo A, Wu JB, Yuan Y, Ho SM, Lam YW, Levine AC.(PubMed)
(75) Momordica charantia leaf extract suppresses rat prostate cancer
progression in vitro and in vivo by Pitchakarn P, Ogawa K, Suzuki S,
Takahashi S, Asamoto M, Chewonarin T, Limtrakul P, Shirai T.(PubMed)
(76) Flaxseed-derived enterolactone is inversely associated with tumor cell proliferation in men with localized prostate cancer by Azrad M, Vollmer RT, Madden J, Dewhirst M, Polascik TJ, Snyder DC, Ruffin MT, Moul JW, Brenner DE, Demark-Wahnefried W.(PubMed)
(77) Effect of flaxseed supplementation on prostatic carcinoma in transgenic mice BY Lin X, Gingrich JR, Bao W, Li J, Haroon ZA, Demark-Wahnefried W.(PubMed)
(78) Flaxseed supplementation (not dietary fat restriction) reduces prostate cancer
proliferation rates in men presurgery by Demark-Wahnefried W, Polascik
TJ, George SL, Switzer BR, Madden JF, Ruffin MT 4th, Snyder DC, Owzar K,
Hars V, Albala DM, Walther PJ, Robertson CN, Moul JW, Dunn BK, Brenner
D, Minasian L, Stella P, Vollmer RT.(PubMed)
(79) Men who consume vegetable oils rich in monounsaturated fat: their dietary patterns and risk of prostate cancer (New Zealand) by Norrish AE, Jackson RT, Sharpe SJ, Skeaff CM.(PubMed)
(80) Selectively hydrogenated soybean oil exerts strong anti-prostate cancer activities by Jung MY, Choi NJ, Oh CH, Shin HK, Yoon SH.(PubMed)
(81) Chrysin reduces proliferation and induces apoptosis in the human prostate cancer cell line pc-3 by Samarghandian S, Afshari JT, Davoodi S.(PubMed)
(82)Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and other plant-derived protease inhibitor concentrates inhibit breast and prostate cancer cell proliferation in vitro. by Magee PJ, Owusu-Apenten R, McCann MJ, Gill CI, Rowland IR.(PubMed)
(83) Analgesic, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of extra virgin olive oil by Fezai M, Senovilla L, Jemaà M, Ben-Attia M(PubMed).
(84) Modulatory effects of polyphenols on apoptosis induction: relevance for cancer prevention by D'Archivio M, Santangelo C, Scazzocchio B, Varì R, Filesi C, Masella R, Giovannini C.(PubMed)
(85) Apoptosis in cancer and atherosclerosis: polyphenol activities by Giovannini C, Scazzocchio B, Varì R, Santangelo C, D'Archivio M, Masella R.(PubMed)
(86) Piperine, a Bioactive Component of Pepper Spice Exerts Therapeutic Effects on Androgen Dependent and Androgen Independent Prostate Cancer
Cells by Samykutty A, Shetty AV, Dakshinamoorthy G, Bartik MM, Johnson
GL, Webb B, Zheng G, Chen A, Kalyanasundaram R, Munirathinam G.(PubMed)
(87) β-Caryophyllene oxide inhibits growth and induces apoptosis through
the suppression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR/S6K1 pathways and ROS-mediated MAPKs
activation by Park KR, Nam D, Yun HM, Lee SG, Jang HJ, Sethi G, Cho SK, Ahn KS.(PubMed)
(88) Chemoprevention of human prostate cancer by oral administration of green tea catechins in volunteers with high-grade prostate
intraepithelial neoplasia: a preliminary report from a one-year
proof-of-principle study by Bettuzzi S, Brausi M, Rizzi F, Castagnetti
G, Peracchia G, Corti A.(PubMed)
(89) Modulation of signaling pathways in prostate cancer by green tea polyphenols by Khan N, Mukhtar H.(PubMed)
(90)Enhanced inhibition of prostate cancer xenograft tumor growth by combining quercetin and green tea by Wang P, Vadgama JV, Said JW, Magyar CE, Doan N, Heber D, Henning SM.(PubMed)
(91) Epigenetic effects of green tea polyphenols in cancer by Henning SM, Wang P, Carpenter CL, Heber D.(PubMed)
(92) A case-control study of diet and prostate cancer
in Japan: possible protective effect of traditional Japanese diet by
Sonoda T, Nagata Y, Mori M, Miyanaga N, Takashima N, Okumura K, Goto K,
Naito S, Fujimoto K, Hirao Y, Takahashi A, Tsukamoto T, Fujioka T, Akaza
H.(PubMed)
(93) Soy and isoflavone consumption in relation to prostate cancer risk in China by Lee MM, Gomez SL, Chang JS, Wey M, Wang RT, Hsing AW.(PubMed)
(94) Soy intake and cancer risk: a review of the in vitro and in vivo data by Messina MJ, Persky V, Setchell KD, Barnes S.(PubMed)
(94) Mediterranean Diet and Prostate Cancer
Risk and Mortality in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study by
Kenfield SA, Dupre N, Richman EL, Stampfer MJ, Chan JM, Giovannucci EL.(PubMed)
(95) A prospective study of demographics, diet, and prostate cancer among men of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii by Severson RK, Nomura AM, Grove JS, Stemmermann GN.(PubMed)
(96) Alcohol consumption, smoking, and other risk factors and prostate cancer in a large health plan cohort in California (United States) by Hiatt RA, Armstrong MA, Klatsky AL, Sidney S.(PubMed)
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