Omega-3, 6,9 fatty acids are phytochemincals in the class of Lipids, found abundantly in dark-green leafy vegetables, grains, legumes, nuts, etc.
Health Benefits
1. Vascular smooth muscle tone
In the investigation of the comparative effects of omega-3, omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids
on vascular smooth muscle tone, showed that Docosahexaenoic acid (1-255
microM) and eicosapentaenoic acid (31-255 microM) inhibited
phenylephrine-induced contractions, (8-63%) and (20-65%), respectively,
which were not altered by indomethacin, NDGA, or by removal of the
endothelium. Linoleic acid (18:2n6) and arachidonic acid (20:4n6) also
induced significant relaxation. Therefore, fatty acid-induced relaxation of the rat aorta is specific to polyunsaturated fatty acids, 20:5n3, 22:6n3, 18:2n6 and 20:4n6, according to "Effects of omega-3, omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids on vascular smooth muscle tone" by Engler MB.(1)
2. Breast cancer
In the review of the literature concerning the role of fatty acids and eicosanoid synthesis inhibitors in breast carcinoma, indicated that The omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs), primarily linoleic acid, promote breast cancer tumorigenesis
and tumor cell proliferation directly and indirectly via increased
synthesis of cyclooxygenase- and lipoxygenase-catalyzed products. The omega-3
PUFAs, primarily docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA), suppress breast carcinoma tumorigenesis and tumor cell
proliferation, although the effect of DHA may be partly ascribed to
increased amounts of EPA derived from DHA. Both cyclooxygenase and
lipoxygenase inhibitors suppress tumorigenesis and/or tumor
proliferation, with the latter being more active. Thus, arachidonic
acid-derived eicosanoids play an important role in breast cancer, and
the balance of the various eicosanoids may be a critical determinant of
cell proliferation, according to "The role of fatty acids and eicosanoid synthesis inhibitors in breast carcinoma" by Noguchi M, Rose DP, Earashi M, Miyazaki I.(2)
3. Regulatory effects
In the examination of the effects of individual n-6 (linoleic acid) and
n-3 (alpha-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acid) PUFAs
on plasma lipid levels and on the major transport processes that
determine plasma LDL concentrations, found that Rats were fed a
semisynthetic cholesterol-free diet supplemented with 4% (by wt)
linoleic, alpha-linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, or docosahexaenoic acid
for 2 weeks. Dietary eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids
lowered plasma triglyceride concentrations by 62% and 52%,
respectively, and lowered plasma cholesterol concentrations by 54% and
43%, respectively. In contrast, dietary linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids
had relatively little effect on plasma triglyceride or cholesterol
concentrations. Dietary eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids
increased hepatic LDL receptor activity by 72% and 58%, respectively,
and reduced the rate of LDL cholesterol entry into plasma by 36% and
30%, respectively, according to "Regulatory effects of individual n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on LDL transport in the rat" by Spady DK.(3)
4. Systolic blood pressure, triglycerides and LDL cholesterol
In the ccomparison of the cardiovascular risk-reduction potential of three major polyunsaturated fatty acids
in a double-blind study. showed that for the diet supplemented with EPA
plus DHA compared with the linoleic acid diet systolic blood pressure
fell 5.1 mm Hg (p = 0.01); plasma triglyceride and VLDL cholesterol
fell by 39% (p = 0.001) and 49% (p = 0.01), respectively; and LDL
cholesterol rose by 9% (p = 0.01). There were no significant changes
with the diet supplemented with alpha-linolenic acid. The net effect on
cardiovascular risk therefore is complex and the systolic blood
pressure reduction was substantial, according to "n-3 fatty acids of marine origin lower systolic blood pressure and triglycerides but raise LDL cholesterol compared with n-3 and n-6 fatty acids from plants" by Kestin M, Clifton P, Belling GB, Nestel PJ.(4)
5. Cardiovascular effects
In the comparison of the effects of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n-3)
to those of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) plus docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy elderly
subjects, found that Both n-3 fatty
acid diets did not change concentrations of total-cholesterol,
LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triacylglycerol and apoA-1 when
compared with the oleic acid-rich diet. However, after the EPA/DHA-rich
diet, LDL-cholesterol increased by 0.39 mmol/l (P = 0.0323, 95% CI
(0.030, 0.780 mmol/l)) when compared with the ALA-rich diet. Intake of
EPA/DHA also increased apoB concentrations by 14 mg/dl (P = 0.0031, 95%
CI (4, 23 mg/dl)) and 12 mg/dl (P = 0.005, 95% CI (3, 21 mg/dl)) versus
the oleic acid and ALA-rich diet, respectively. Except for an
EPA/DHA-induced increase in tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) of
14.6% (P = 0.0184 versus ALA diet, 95% CI (1.5, 18.3%)), changes in
markers of hemostasis and endothelial integrity did not reach
statistical significance following consumption of the two n-3 fatty acid diets, according to "Effects of alpha-linolenic acid versus those of EPA/DHA on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy elderly subjects" by Goyens PL, Mensink RP.(5)
6. Cognitive effects
In the assessment of the cognitive effects of fish oil supplementation
at college age, hypothesizing benefits on affect, executive control,
inhibition, and verbal learning and memory. College-aged participants,
indicated that the benefits of n-3 PUFA on RAVLT performance derived
more from depreciated placebo performance than improved performance due
to fish oil. The placebo gain on TMT performance likely derived from a
learning effect. Together, these results present limited cognitive
benefits of n-3 PUFA at college age; however, the treatment may have
been subtherapeutic, with a larger sample needed to generalize these
results, according to "Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognition in a college-aged population" by Karr JE, Grindstaff TR, Alexander JE.(6)
7. Depression-related cognition
In the investigation of the effects of n-3 PUFA on depression-relevant
cognitive functioning in healthy individuals, found that The n-3 PUFA
group made fewer risk-averse decisions than the placebo group. This
difference appeared only in non-normative trials of the decision-making
test, and was not accompanied by increased impulsiveness. N-3 PUFAs
improved scores on the control/perfectionism scale of the cognitive
reactivity measure. No effects were found on the other cognitive tasks
and no consistent effects on mood were observed. The present findings
indicate that n-3 PUFA supplementation may have a selective effect on
risky decision making in healthy volunteers, which is unrelated to
impulsiveness, according to "Omega-3 fatty acids (fish-oil) and depression-related cognition in healthy volunteers" by Antypa N, Van der Does AJ, Smelt AH, Rogers RD.(7)
8. Mental illness
In the review of the double blind placebo controlled clinical trials published prior to April 2007 to determine whether omega-3
PUFA are likely to be efficacious in these psychiatric disorders, found
that for schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder we found
little evidence of a robust clinically relevant effect. In the case of
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and related disorders, most
trials showed at most small benefits over placebo. A limited
meta-analysis of these trials suggested that benefits of omega-3 PUFA supplementation may be greater in a classroom setting than at home. Some evidence indicates that omega-3
PUFA may reduce symptoms of anxiety although the data is preliminary
and inconclusive. The most convincing evidence for beneficial effects of
omega-3 PUFA is to be found in mood
disorders. A meta-analysis of trials involving patients with major
depressive disorder and bipolar disorder provided evidence that omega-3
PUFA supplementation reduces symptoms of depression. Furthermore,
meta-regression analysis suggests that supplementation with
eicosapentaenoic acid may be more beneficial in mood disorders than with
docosahexaenoic acid, although several confounding factors prevented a
definitive conclusion being made regarding which species of omega-3 PUFA is most beneficial, according to "Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid?" by Ross BM, Seguin J, Sieswerda LE.(8)
9. Antioxidant, antimicrobial activities
In the investigation of the hexane extract from different parts in
several Hypericum species, found that The antioxidant activity of all
hexane extracts was evaluated by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) radical scavenging method. The results indicate that hexane
extracts from different parts of H. scabrum possess considerable
antioxidant activity. The highest radical scavenging activity was
detected in seed, which had an IC50 = 165 microg/mL. The antimicrobial
activity of the extracts of those samples were determined against seven
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (Bacillus subtilis,
Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis,
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae),
as well as three fungi (Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and
Aspergillus niger), according to "Antioxidant, antimicrobial activities and fatty acid components of flower, leaf, stem and seed of Hypericum scabrum" by Shafaghat A.(9)
10. Post-partum depression PPD
In the investigation of the effect of unbalanced dietary intake of omega-6/omega-3
ratio >9:1 in the prevalence for PPD, comprising a prospective
cohort with four waves of follow-up during pregnancy and one following
delivery. PPD was evaluated according to the Edinburgh Post-partum
Depression Scale (PPD ≥ 11) in 106 puerperae between 2005 and 2007, in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Independent variables included
socio-demographic, obstetric, pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and
dietary intake data, which were obtained by means of a food frequency
questionnaire in the first trimester of pregnancy, verified that an
association between omega-6/omega-3
ratio above 9:1, the levels recommended by the Institute of Medicine,
and the prevalence of PPD. These results add to the evidence regarding
the importance of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the regulation of mental health mechanisms, according to "High dietary ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 polyunsaturated acids during pregnancy and prevalence of post-partum depression" by da Rocha CM, Kac G.(10)
11. Relieving inflammation
In the evaluation of the effects of lymphatic drainage and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (omega-3PUFA) on high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), inflammatory
cytokines and endotoxin in rats with intestinal ischemia-reperfusion
(I/R) injury, found that Lymphatic drainage may reduce the levels of
endotoxin, inflammatory cytokines and HMGB1 so as to alleviate the
intestinal I/R injury. The intervention of omega-3PUFA has some
protective effect through relieving inflammation, according to "[Effects of lymphatic drainage and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats].[Article in Chinese]" by Zhou KG, He GZ, Zhang R, Chen XF.(11)
12. Suppression of inflammatory
In the determination of whether salmon (rich in n-3 LCPUFAs) consumption
twice a week during pregnancy affected offspring umbilical vein EC CAM
expression, showed that increased dietary salmon intake in pregnancy
dampens offspring EC activation, which implicates a role for n-3
LCPUFAs in the suppression of inflammatory processes in humans. This
trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00801502, according to
"Salmon consumption by pregnant women reduces ex vivo umbilical cord endothelial cell activation"
by van den Elsen LW, Noakes PS, van der Maarel MA, Kremmyda LS,
Vlachava M, Diaper ND, Miles EA, Eussen SR, Garssen J, Willemsen LE,
Wilson SJ, Godfrey KM, Calder PC.(12)
13. Neonatal immune responses
In thye assessment of whether an increased intake of oily fish in
pregnancy modifies neonatal immune responses and early markers of atopy,
showed that Oily fish intervention in pregnancy modifies neonatal
immune responses but may not affect markers of infant atopy assessed at
6 mo of age, according to "Increased intake of oily fish in pregnancy:
effects on neonatal immune responses and on clinical outcomes in infants
at 6 mo" by Noakes PS, Vlachava M, Kremmyda LS, Diaper ND, Miles EA,
Erlewyn-Lajeunesse M, Williams AP, Godfrey KM, Calder PC.(13)
14. Allergic disease
In the study of the effects of maternal n-3 (PUFA)-rich fish oil
supplementation on cord blood (CB) IgE and cytokine levels in neonates
at risk of developing allergic disease, found that increasing neonatal
n-3 PUFA levels with maternal dietary supplementation can achieve
subtle modification of neonatal cytokine levels. Further assessment of
immune function and clinical follow-up of these infants will help
determine if there are any significant effects on postnatal immune
development and expression of allergic disease, according to " Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy reduces interleukin-13 levels in cord blood of infants at high risk of atopy' by Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A, Beilin LJ, Taylor AL, Holt PG, Prescott SL.(14)
15. Mucosal immune function
In the evaluation of if changes in breast milk omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid (n-3 PUFA) composition as a result of maternal dietary fish oil
supplementation during pregnancy can modify levels of these
immunological parameters in breast milk, found that Supplementation with
fish oil during pregnancy significantly alters early post-partum breast
milk fatty acid composition. omega-3 PUFA levels were positively associated with IgA and sCD14 levels, suggesting a relationship between fatty acid status and mucosal immune function, according to "The effect of supplementation with fish oil during pregnancy on breast milk immunoglobulin A, soluble CD14, cytokine levels and fatty acid composition" by Dunstan JA, Roper J, Mitoulas L, Hartmann PE, Simmer K, Prescott SL.(15)
16. Ventricular arrhythmias and myocardial infarction
In the investigation of the effectiveness of prescription medication containing 90% omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
for 6 months on ventricular arrhythmias in patients with myocardial
infarction less than a year ago, found that Administration of highly
concentration preparation of omega-3
PUFAs for 3 months reduced number of PVCs per day, frequencies of
grades 2, 3, 4A, 4B, and high grade PVCs (grades 3 - 5) as a whole.
These effects persisted after 6 months of treatment, according to
"[Possibilities of a preparation omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and myocardial infarction].[Article in Russian]" by Gogolashvili NG, Litvinenko MV, Pochikaeva TN, Vavitova ES, Polikarpov LS, Novgorodtseva NIa.(16)
17. Health effects
In the investigation of the health effects of Perilla frutescens seeds, a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs), showed that in comparing to other plant oils, perilla seed oil
consistently contains the one of the highest proportion of omega-3 (ALA) fatty acids,
at 54-64%. The omega-6 (linoleic acid) component is usually around 14%
and omega-9 (Oleic acid) is also present in perilla oil. These
polyunsaturated fatty acids are most beneficial to human health and in prevention of different diseases like cardiovascular disorders, cancer, inflammatory, rheumatoid arthritis etc., according to "Health effects of omega-3,6,9 fatty acids: Perilla frutescens is a good example of plant oils" by Asif M.(17)
18. Obesity
in the determination of whether obesity modifies the association between plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs) and markers of inflammation and endothelial activation in
Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) participants, found that
the modifying effect of obesity on the association of plasma PUFAs with
IL-6 and sICAM-1 suggests differences in fatty acid metabolism and may also have implications in dietary fatty
acid intake for obese individuals, particularly for linoleic and EPAs.
Further study is warranted to confirm and explain the strong
associations of dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA) with inflammatory and
endothelial activation markers, according to "Obesity modifies the association between plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids and markers of inflammation: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis" by Steffen BT, Steffen LM, Tracy R, Siscovick D, Hanson NQ, Nettleton J, Tsai MY.(18)
19. Crohn's disease (CD)
In the investigation of the effects of a nutritionally balanced
inflammatory bowel disease nutrition formula (IBDNF) on nutrition
status in CD patients, indicate that twenty patients completed the final
visit. After 4 months, there was a significant decrease in plasma
phospholipid levels of arachidonic acid with increases in
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid. Ten patients had a
final EPA concentration of >2%. There was improvement in fat-free
and fat mass in patients with final EPA >2% (P = .014 and P = .05).
Vitamin D (25-OH) levels improved in all patients (18.5-25.9 ng/mL, P
< .001). Those with EPA >2% had significantly lower CDAI (116 ±
94.5 vs 261.8 ± 86.5; P = .005) and higher IBDQ (179.1 ± 26.6 vs 114.6 ±
35.9, P < .001) compared to those with EPA <2%, according to "The
effects of an oral supplement enriched with fish oil, prebiotics, and
antioxidants on nutrition status in Crohn's disease patients" by Wiese DM, Lashner BA, Lerner E, DeMichele SJ, Seidner DL.(19)
20. Etc.
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Sources
(1) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1396998
(2) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7777237
(3) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8105015
(4) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1971991
(5) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16482073
(6) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22250656
(7) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18583436
(8) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17877810
(9) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22224301
(10) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22136220
(11) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22093738
(12) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22011457
(13) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22218160
(14) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12680858
(15) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15298564
(16) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21942955
(17) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21909287
(18) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21829163
(19) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21775642
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